What Is the Use of Ginsenoside?

Ginseng belongs to the Araliaceae family and is a perennial herbaceous plant. It is a common traditional Chinese medicine in China. The "Shennong Bencao Jing" records that ginseng has the effects of nourishing the five organs, calming the spirit, calming the soul, stopping fear, eliminating evil qi, improving eyesight, happiness, and intelligence. It can also strengthen the body and prolong life. Modern medical research has shown that the main active ingredient of ginseng is ginsenosides, a type of steroid compound that plays an important role in regulating the central nervous system, cardiac function, substance metabolism, and other aspects of the body. It is mainly used in clinical treatment of the nervous system, cardiovascular system, and anti-tumor effects [1-2]. This study mainly reviews the pharmacological effects of ginsenosides.

1. The role of the nervous system

1.1. Treatment of neurodegenerative diseases

Ginsenosides target the central nervous system, and therefore have a good clinical effect on neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, to improve the patient's signs and symptoms. Ginsenosides can reduce the formation and deposition of amyloid peptides, inhibit the phosphorylation of microtubule-associated proteins, thereby reducing the formation of senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain, and improve neuroplasticity to treat senile dementia [3]. Ginsenosides can also protect dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra of brain tissue through multiple processes such as anti-oxidative stress, anti-apoptosis, reducing iron uptake by brain cells, and promoting the proliferation of neural stem cells, thereby playing a role in the treatment of Parkinson's disease [4].

1.2 Improve memory function

Ginsenosides regulate the glutamate level in the brain tissue of the body by mediating protein kinase II-dependent signal pathways, enhancing its secretion and release, thereby promoting the development of the brain nervous system and playing an important role in learning and memory [5]; and ginsenosides can also increase the phosphorylation of synaptic proteins, causing vesicles to detach from the cytoskeleton, effectively promoting the large-scale release of neurotransmitters, improving the transmission of information between neurons, and thereby improving the release of neurotransmitters by the central nervous system [6] and improving learning and memory.

1.3 Protecting brain tissue

Ginsenosides reduce pathological damage caused by cerebral ischemia and prevent further damage to brain tissue by protecting mitochondria, maintaining the supply of cellular energy, inhibiting the toxic effects of neuronal excitation, degeneration and death, reducing apoptosis and necrosis of nerve cells, etc. Ginsenosides can also stimulate the expression of neurotrophic glial fibrillary acidic protein, promote the proliferation of activated astrocytes in the brain injury area, enhancing the body's antioxidant stress response, thereby improving blood circulation and effectively repairing brain tissue [7]. Zoological studies have shown that ginsenosides can enhance the energy metabolism and antioxidant effects of brain tissue, repair neurotransmitter metabolic disorders, and improve pathological damage to brain tissue, thereby protecting brain tissue [8].

2  Cardiovascular system effects

2.1    Antiarrhythmic

Ginsenosides can prevent arrhythmia through a variety of mechanisms, including calcium antagonism, scavenging of oxygen free radicals, regulating adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-sensitive potassium channels, increasing the production and release of nitric oxide, and improving the stability of cell membranes. Animal experiments have shown that ginsenosides can convert ventricular arrhythmias caused by isoproterenol in a rabbit animal model to sinus rhythm, and can maintain sinus rhythm [9].

2.2 Anti-cardiac hypertrophy

Ginsenosides can inhibit atrial natriuretic factor and neurocalpain mRNA expression by reducing angiotensin II levels, calcium channel opening, and intracellular calcium influx, thereby achieving the effect of anti-cardiac hypertrophy [10]. Animal studies have shown that after ginsenosides are injected intraperitoneally into a rat model with myocardial hypertrophy, the heart morphology of the rat is significantly improved, and the whole heart mass index and left ventricular mass index are significantly reduced, with a good effect of preventing myocardial hypertrophy [11].

2.3 Anti-myocardial ischemia

Ginsenosides can inhibit the renin-angiotensin system cascade reaction, reduce the level of angiotensin II, and promote the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and receptors, increase the formation of collateral blood vessels in ischemic myocardium coronary arteries, and reduce or reverse ventricular remodeling and myocardial ischemia [12]. Animal experiments have found that ginsenosides can effectively reduce the infarct size in an animal model of acute myocardial infarction in rats, reduce structural damage to ischemic myocardium, and have a good protective effect on myocardium [13]. 2.4 Anti-myocardial cell apoptosis: Ginseng saponins can reduce the production of intracellular oxygen free radicals and oxidative damage products, restore mitochondrial membrane potential and myocardial cell activity to a certain extent, inhibit myocardial cell apoptosis; they can also inhibit the release of oxidized low-density lipoprotein, thereby increasing the level of NO and reducing lipid peroxidation damage to myocardial cells, thereby reducing myocardial cell apoptosis and necrosis [14]. Some studies have found that the mechanism of ginsenoside in inhibiting myocardial cell apoptosis is also related to the inhibition of the expression of apoptosis genes such as caspase-3 and Bax phosphorylation-stress-responsive protein kinase [15].

3 Anti-tumor effect

3.1 Inducing apoptosis

Under normal circumstances, the body can remove aging and damaged cells through the apoptosis mechanism to maintain a stable internal environment. However, during the development of tumors, apoptosis is often inhibited. For example, effectively inducing apoptosis has a positive effect on the treatment of tumors and inhibiting metastasis. Ginsenosides can exert an anti-tumor effect by damaging the mitochondrial membrane, promoting the release of apoptosis-related factors, inducing cell differentiation, downregulating the activity of cyclin proteins, and blocking the cell cycle, thereby inducing apoptosis, through various mechanisms such as changing cell morphology, inducing DNA fragmentation, activating apoptosis-promoting genes, and regulating the expression of the apoptosis protein family [16].

3.2 Inhibits tumor cell proliferation

Ginsenosides inhibit tumor cell proliferation by affecting the cell cycle and thereby inhibiting the synthesis of proteins and ATP required for cell mitosis, and upregulating the level of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors [17]. Studies have also shown that ginsenosides affect different stages of the cell cycle in different tumour cells. For example, ginsenosides block the G0/G1 phase of esophageal cancer cells[18] and block the G0/G1 and S phases of melanoma cells[19].

3.3 Regulation of signal pathways

Signal pathways such as nuclear transcription factor-κB, mitogen-activated protein kinase, extracellular regulated protein kinase and transforming growth factor-β are all related to the occurrence and development of tumors, and also participate in the infiltration, proliferation and metastasis of tumor cells. Among these, nuclear transcription factor-κB is currently a research hotspot for anti-tumor molecular targeted therapy. The expression levels of mitogen-activated protein kinase, extracellular regulated protein kinase and transforming growth factor-β are closely related to the invasive and migratory abilities of tumor cells [20]. Studies have found that ginsenosides can inhibit the metastasis of tumor cells by regulating signal pathways such as nuclear transcription factor-κB, mitogen-activated protein kinase, extracellular regulated protein kinase, and transforming growth factor-β [21].

3.4 Regulating immune function

The body's immune status and immune response are closely related to the occurrence and development of tumors. Ginseng is a traditional tonic Chinese medicine, and its active ingredient ginsenoside plays an important role in regulating immune function and improving the body's adaptability. Animal studies have shown that ginsenoside can significantly increase the IgG antibody titer in mouse serum and activate the production and release of Th1 and Th2 cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-2 (IL-2), interleukin-4 (IL-4), interleukin-10 (IL-10), gamma-interferon (IFN-γ), and other Th1 and Th2 cytokines. It effectively exerts the immunological activity of cytokines, regulates the body's immune response, and has a certain effect on the occurrence, development, and outcome of tumors [22].

In summary, the main active ingredient in ginseng, ginsenosides, has good clinical application value for diseases of the nervous system, cardiovascular system, and tumors. It has been used in the treatment and prevention of various diseases. With the continuous advancement of modern medical technology, the pharmacological effects and pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides will be studied more thoroughly, and their clinical application will be given more attention.

References

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