Is Lycopene Good for Skin?

Lycopene has the strongest antioxidant activity and is found in large quantities in ripe tomatoes and other fruits, where it acts as a red pigment. Studies have shown that because tomatoes contain lycopene, a high intake of tomatoes can improve antioxidant capacity and effectively reduce the risk of cancer. In 1873, Hartsen isolated and extracted a crystalline dark red pigment from berries [1]. Millardet then extracted a crude extract from tomatoes in 1875, and in 1903, this pigment was officially named lycopene by Schunck [2-3]. Later, the unique molecular structure and biological properties of lycopene were discovered, and its applications began to be widely studied. In 1989, studies showed that lycopene is involved in a variety of chemical reactions that can prevent the degradation of lipids, proteins and DNA [4]. In 1991, Campbell showed through a study that the liver lycopene levels of cancer patients were low. In 1997, Gerster H[5] showed in vivo that lycopene inhibited the proliferation of cancer cells in humans and animals. The results of these two studies ultimately showed that lycopene can inhibit the growth of cancer cells.

In recent years, there have been numerous reports at home and abroad on the research of lycopene's various physiological activities, such as its antioxidant and blood lipid-lowering properties. The development of lycopene-related products has become a research hotspot in various countries, and it is mainly used in industries such as medicine, cosmetics, and animal husbandry. As research has progressed, it has been discovered that lycopene can also be used as a coloring agent or preservative in certain foods, due to its good color and natural safety. This has greatly promoted its application in the food industry.

1. Physicochemical properties of lycopene

Lycopene is a kind of carotenoid that does not contain oxygen. It appears as dark purple-red long needle-like crystals and contains 13 double bonds, 11 of which are conjugated double bonds, which gives it strong antioxidant properties. Lycopene has the chemical formula C40H56 and a molecular weight of 536.85. Its melting point is 174 °C (trans) and it is soluble in non-polar solvents such as ether, fats, oils, hexane, acetone and petroleum ether[6]. It is also soluble in some aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons such as chloroform. There are about 72 isomers of lycopene. Lycopene is generally found in fruits and vegetables in the all-trans configuration, and the trans isomer is more stable than the cis isomer. However, due to the high number of conjugated double bonds, lycopene is susceptible to rearrangement into the cis isomer and is easily oxidized by oxidants, sunlight and temperature during processing and storage, resulting in a reduction or loss of coloring agent and biological properties [7]. The poor chemical stability and low oral utilization of lycopene reduce its beneficial effects. Therefore, foreign scholars have conducted experimental studies to find ways to stably produce and process lycopene, and have found that when a specific food additive is present, high-pressure homogenization can improve the stability and biological yield of lycopene [8].

2. Lycopene's biological activity and functions

2.1 Lycopene's protective effect on the skin

Lycopene is one of the stronger antioxidants in plants. It can prevent the down-regulation of procollagen and the accumulation of malondialdehyde in cells, promote skin cell regeneration, and play an anti-aging role. Li Tong et al. [9] conducted experiments related to the preparation of a lycopene anti-aging facial mask. The moisturizing rate was the target of the test, an orthogonal test design was used to optimize the formula of the mask, and the final formula was determined to be 6% glycerin, 10% castor oil, and 3% monoglyceride. The experiment confirmed that the mask has outstanding antioxidant capacity. ROS is produced during photo-oxidation and can damage biological macromolecules such as proteins and lipids and cell structures, which in turn can cause cellular biochemical reactions such as immunity and inflammation, or induce apoptosis.

Therefore, sunlight is a major environmental factor that causes skin changes, and avoiding UV exposure is the primary strategy for protecting the skin. Due to the strong antioxidant properties of lycopene, it can bind to free radicals produced by UV exposure, prevent the production of free radicals in the skin, and thereby reduce damage to cells. At the same time, lycopene contains a conjugated structure in its molecular structure, which can directly absorb ultraviolet rays[10] and reduce the degree of skin damage. Therefore, lycopene can be added as an auxiliary additive to sunscreen products. In addition, ingesting a certain amount of lycopene has additional benefits for skin tissue and is very effective in protecting the moisture, texture and elasticity of the skin.

Evidence shows that people who regularly eat tomatoes have stronger skin resistance to the sun, and that a daily intake of 20-30 mg or more lycopene can exert its antioxidant, anti-aging, and beauty health functions [11]. Lycopene can also detoxify the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons contained in polluted air, reduce the phototoxic effect, prevent the accelerated formation of free radicals [12], and protect the skin. Currently, in addition to its outstanding anti-aging and sun protection properties, lycopene is also used in the cosmetics industry as a natural colorant and stabilizer.

2.2 The effect of lycopene on the immune system

Lycopene powder has an immunomodulatory effect, protecting phagocytes from oxidative damage, promoting lymphocyte proliferation, stimulating the function of effector T cells, enhancing the killing ability of NK cells and the carbon clearance ability of monocytes-macrophages, and reducing oxidative damage to lymphocyte DNA, thereby regulating the body's immune system [13-14]. Lycopene also blocks the activation of the NF-κB inflammatory pathway, inhibits the transcription of pro-inflammatory mediators and the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, reduces inflammation and, in turn, reduces hippocampal damage [15].

Zhang Dan et al. [16] found in animal experiments that lycopene reduces inflammation by inhibiting the IKK/IKB/NF-κB signaling pathway, while also reducing serum inflammatory factor levels and protecting the kidneys. A study using mice fed a high-fat diet showed that lycopene improves inflammation by inhibiting the increase in the IKK/IKB/NF-κB signal. Lycopene can therefore prevent insulin resistance, inflammation and lipid accumulation [17]. In summary, the immune effects of lycopene are closely related to its antioxidant properties. Lycopene can promote humoral and cellular immunity, and regulate the body's immune system by inhibiting the activation of inflammatory pathways and the production of inflammatory cytokines. However, lycopene has low solubility in water and is difficult to extract, so industrial production is still difficult. At the same time, the low content in the human body leads to low bioavailability. Therefore, some scholars have used lycopene in combination with other substances, such as flavonoids, human amniotic epithelial cells, or using lipids as a carrier [18-20], to effectively enhance its effectiveness.

2.3 The anti-cancer effect of lycopene

Lycopene lacks the β-ionone ring structure, so it is often considered to have no physiological activity and no research value. However, as research progresses, it has been shown that lycopene has the effect of preventing cancer, such as colorectal cancer, prostate cancer, esophageal cancer, etc. [21-23]. Lycopene can effectively intercept free radicals and activate immune cells in the body to prevent cancer. Studies have shown that lycopene prevents esophageal cancer in the following ways: it activates the PARy protein, which regulates various physiological and pathological activities in the body, thereby promoting apoptosis of cancer cells; and lycopene in moderate doses can inhibit the expression of NF-κB, COX-2 and esophageal mucosal apoptosis proteins [23].

In animal models, lycopene has also been shown to inhibit the proliferation of many tumor cell lines induced by insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) and to reduce the incidence of spontaneous and chemically induced mammary tumors, which is significantly more effective than any carotenoid [24]. Other researchers have also studied the anti-prostate cancer effects of lycopene and found that lycopene can effectively inhibit the proliferation of prostate cancer cells, block the cell cycle, and induce apoptosis in vivo and in vitro to prevent or treat prostate cancer [22]. In summary, lycopene prevents cancer mostly through the mechanism of promoting apoptosis. A few studies have also found that lycopene and its metabolites have toxic effects on various cancer cells, and can also achieve the effect of anti-cancer by regulating intestinal microorganisms and cholesterol [22].

3. Lycopene in food applications

Due to its distinct color, non-toxicity, excellent antioxidant properties, anticancer, lipid-lowering, and immune-enhancing properties, lycopene can be used as a food additive in food processing, and has also been commonly used as an ingredient in some foods in recent years. Among carotenoids, lycopene is becoming increasingly valuable.

3.1 Lycopene in baked goods

Applying tomato sauce to baked goods can prevent cancer to a certain extent. Studies have shown that adding lycopene and tomato powder can form microspheres with fat, increasing the hardness. Since lycopene is fat-soluble, it may reduce the amount of free fat available in the wheat flour, thereby reducing the spreading rate of the biscuits. Lycopene's strong antioxidant capacity also increases DPPH free radical scavenging activity, which has a higher antioxidant potential and prevents the formation of lipid peroxides. The decrease in hardness of the biscuits during storage may be due to an increase in water activity.

The biscuits containing tomato powder and crude lycopene have a better luster and color. After the addition of lycopene, the crude fat and ash content in the food also increased significantly [25]. In order to reduce costs, some researchers have also added tomato peels directly to the food, obtaining a tomato lycopene-rich hamburger patty. The burgers had a unique color due to the lycopene, and their sensory quality remained good [26]. In summary, the addition of tomato powder and crude lycopene to baked goods, such as wholemeal biscuits, can improve the antioxidant properties while improving certain physical and sensory properties, effectively improving the nutritional quality of baked goods during the baking, packaging, transportation and storage process.

3.2 Lycopene in meat products

In the production of meat products, nitrites are often added to extend the optimal consumption time of the food. However, nitrosamines produced by microorganisms from nitrites can cause cancer, so studies have used lycopene instead of nitrite to add to meat products. Wu Bin et al. [27] found through experiments that lycopene, as the main component of the red pigments in some fruits and vegetables, has good antioxidant properties and can reduce the degree of oxidation of meat products, thereby acting as a preservative. On the other hand, lycopene can be used in combination with nitrite to convert nitrate to NO, thereby reducing the residual nitrite in cured meat products [28]. Lycopene is added as a coloring agent to some products to stabilize the color. In addition, studies have shown that lycopene can inhibit the growth of microorganisms and extend the optimal shelf life of meat products.

Lycopene can also be used in livestock and poultry feed. Studies have shown that feeding livestock and poultry with lycopene-containing feed can reduce the unwanted cholesterol content in livestock and poultry meat and increase the proportion of essential cholesterol acids, thereby improving the nutritional value of meat products. At the same time, antioxidants can enhance membrane stability and reduce the leakage of Ca2+ from mitochondria and the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcoplasm, resulting in a decrease in the glycolytic potential, which causes a decrease in the pH after death and can reduce the drip loss of the meat. Adding tomato pomace to the feed can also reduce the luster of the meat [29-30]. In summary, lycopene can be added to livestock and poultry feed in powder form or used in cured meat products to improve the flavor, color, nutritional value, and shelf life of meat products.

3.3 Lycopene in edible oil

Edible oil can deteriorate due to factors such as oxygen in the air, temperature and light, and is particularly sensitive to light. As fats and oils contain substances with double bonds, they are prone to hydrogenation under the influence of light, producing substances that accelerate the oxidation reaction and cause an acidic smell [31]. Not only is the flavor, color and nutritional value of the oil destroyed, but long-term consumption can also be harmful to human health. To inhibit the oxidation and deterioration of cooking oil, an appropriate amount of antioxidant can be added to the cooking oil. To avoid the potential harm and toxicity of the antioxidants used to humans, natural antioxidants are often used. A foreign study showed that although the addition of lycopene extract did not change the oxidation mechanism, it slowed down the process as an scavenger. The test results showed that the addition of lycopene extract extended the shelf life of linseed oil by 31% (Ranimat test) and 42% (kinetics of stability during storage) [32].

Oleoresins rich in lycopene can be used as dietary stabilizers in olive oil and sunflower oil to replace synthetic preservatives and provide antioxidant protection during long-term storage [33]. Lycopene can be added to edible oil as a dietary stabilizer, or it can be incorporated into a matrix (encapsulant) to protect active compounds from external conditions, inhibit their contact with other ingredients, or control their release. There are various methods for encapsulating natural antioxidants, such as spray drying, supercritical CO2 and freeze drying, and microencapsulation. In terms of edible oil applications, some scholars believe that nano-emulsification-based encapsulation technology may be considered a more promising method. It is non-toxic, has adjustable rheology, high dispersibility, and better controlled release and high physical stability than other encapsulation technologies [34].

Lycopene has light barrier properties and oxygen barrier properties when edible oil is exposed to light, as well as antioxidant release, which can effectively inhibit the formation of peroxides [35]. At present, adding lycopene as a food additive directly to edible oil can effectively extend the shelf life, but the high production cost and low stability of lycopene limit its use in edible oil. In addition, lycopene added to edible oil in powder form may have an adverse sensory effect. Therefore, encapsulation technology for natural active substances has better prospects for application in edible oil, but the encapsulation equipment has high requirements and the encapsulation cost is high, and the technology still needs to be improved.

3.4 Other applications

Lycopene is naturally non-toxic and has a wide range of functions. It can be used in a wide variety of foods, such as foods developed using its biological properties to protect human health. Lycopene is also used in the production of functional drinks suitable for specific groups of people, including sports drinks, breakfast drinks, and compound juice drinks, as well as the development of new flavours. For example, some scholars have developed a kind of pearl powder round soda that can neutralize stomach acid[36]; in 2020, Canada issued a document stating that lycopene can be added to certain beverages as a food coloring agent[37]. A study used three different methods to prepare a novel water-soluble lycopene-chitosan oligosaccharide (LYC-CHIOS) complex, and the antioxidant activity of the complex was also determined. This study expands the application of lycopene as a food additive [38].

In recent years, foreign scholars have added lycopene to ice cream to relieve facial inflammation and reduce the risk of acne in young people due to improper diet [39]. Lycopene can also be used to inhibit oxidation of fresh cuts of apples. A foreign study found that lycopene microspheres obtained in a certain way can inhibit enzymatic browning and not affect physical, chemical or microbiological quality when used to enhance fresh-cut apples and stored at 5 °C for 9 days [40]. Food occupies an important position in people's daily lives. In addition to meeting market demand, food should have different tastes and flavors and contain different nutrients. At present, there are many types of food on the market, but most still cannot meet the needs of contemporary people pursuing healthy diets. People have begun to pay attention to natural plant ingredients, and lycopene has attracted close attention due to its super antioxidant properties and functions such as lowering blood lipids and preventing cancer.

4 Conclusion

Lycopene, known as the “plant gold,” is a highly effective antioxidant that can eliminate the body's oxidizing free radicals. Foods rich in lycopene are better absorbed by the body when combined with protein, and the absorption rate can also be increased by boiling the food. In addition, lycopene also has the effect of protecting the skin. Lycopene is widely found in fruits and vegetables, and China is rich in lycopene sources. At present, lycopene is widely used in various industries. It is used in the pharmaceutical industry to affect the progression of osteolysis[41]; in the cosmetics industry, lycopene is mostly used in anti-aging products, such as the production of anti-aging masks; as research continues, some studies have shown that lycopene can also be used in aquaculture. feed containing lycopene, a natural nutrient, can help improve the quality of livestock meat and increase animal fertility. For example, adding an appropriate amount of lycopene to the daily feed of laying hens can reduce the cholesterol content in eggs and meat [42].

Lycopene has a wide range of applications, but its low yield and huge market demand make it expensive. This problem limits the industrial production of lycopene, which not only takes into account the extraction rate of lycopene itself, but also subsequent sustainable development and actual production requirements. At present, the production and development of lycopene using microbial fermentation methods such as fungi, algae and yeast is showing significant development trends. The costs are relatively low and the pollution caused to the environment is less. However, this technology is still immature. Therefore, the advantages of different extraction methods can be combined to promote industrial development and optimize production choices [43]. In summary, there is an increasing amount of research on innovative lycopene products, and the prospects for development in a number of industries are good.

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