What Is the Use of Rosemary in Animal Feeding?

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) is a shrub in the family Lamiaceae. It was first cultivated in Europe and northern Africa along the Mediterranean coast, and was introduced to China during the Cao Wei period. Rosemary prefers warm climates and requires sandy soil with good drainage for planting, so it is mainly grown in places such as Hunan, Yunnan, Guangxi and Guizhou in China. Rosemary is a natural spice plant, and its extracts include rosemary essential oil, rosmarinic acid, carnosic acid/phenol, oleanolic acid and ursolic acid. These rosemary extracts contain active substances such as flavonoids, terpenes, phenolic acids and lipids, which play a positive role in antioxidant, immunity enhancement, anti-tumor, antibacterial and prevention of cell damage [1-3].

1 Extraction and processing of rosemary extract

The rosemary leaves are crushed or cut, transferred to a distillation vessel, distilled by passing water vapor into the distillation vessel, and the rosemary essential oil is collected. The distilled rosemary leaves are extracted by reflux with an organic solvent to obtain an extract. After the extract is decolorized, the solvent is recovered, and boiling with water is continued. Centrifugation, precipitation, vacuum drying and other processes to obtain fat-soluble ingredients such as carnosic acid, oleanolic acid and ursolic acid; the centrifuged liquid can be concentrated to obtain the water-soluble ingredient rosmarinic acid [3]. Ethanol is generally used for organic solvent extraction. In addition, more advanced technologies such as supercritical carbon dioxide (CO 2) extraction, ultrasonic-assisted reflux and supercritical fluid extraction can also be used to extract the antioxidant components of rosemary [4-6]. The extracted antioxidant components can be processed into products with different compositions and dosage forms according to different market demands and application scenarios.

2 Main components of rosemary extract and their functions

2.1 Rosemary essential oil

Rosemary essential oil is a product collected by distilling dried rosemary leaves. Its main beneficial components are α-pinene, 1,8-cineole, camphene, camphor, borneol and β-pinene [7]. Rosemary essential oil has the advantages of a small molecular weight, easy penetration, the ability to inhibit tyrosinase activity, and a unique aromatic odor. It can be used in skin care products to improve skin condition and inhibit the production of pigments [8-9]. In addition, due to its unique aromatic scent, rosemary essential oil has obvious insecticidal effects and can be used on agricultural crops, such as Tetranychus urticae and Trialeurodes vaporai- rum, which have good toxic activity and do not affect the growth of the host plant [10]; can effectively prevent infection by the red spider mite (Tetranychus cinnabarinus), which is related to the increase in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activity [11]. The insecticidal mechanism of rosemary essential oil may be that it inhibits acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and causes an oxidative imbalance in the pest, thereby exhibiting an insecticidal effect [12].

In addition, rosemary essential oil can quickly penetrate and cause pests to lose water or die due to dehydration because of its small molecular weight. Studies have shown that feeding a diet supplemented with rosemary essential oil can promote animal growth and improve immunity and antioxidant capacity [13-14].

2.2 Rosmarinic acid 

Rosmarinic acid is a phenolic diterpene compound that is a colorless to pale yellow powdery crystal. It is fat-soluble and has the advantageous characteristics of being highly effective, non-toxic and heat-resistant [15]. Studies on the antioxidant capacity of several rosemary extracts have shown that rosmarinic acid has the strongest antioxidant capacity, which is superior to that of rosmarinic acid, carnosol and rosemary phenol [16]. Carnosic acid has a protective effect on dopamine nerve damage induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine, which may be related to its inhibition of oxidative damage to neurons and prevention of abnormal elevation of caspase-3 activity [17]. Salvianic acid can inhibit the occurrence of ferroptosis, increase the number of surviving neurons, reduce spinal cord injury, and promote the recovery of neurological function. The mechanism may be related to the activation of the nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway, which enhances antioxidant capacity

[18].

2.3 Ursolic acid and oleanolic acid

Ursolic acid and oleanolic acid are pentacyclic triterpenoids that are isomers of each other (oleanolic acid has a methyl group at the C-20 position, while ursolic acid has a methyl group at the C-19 position) and have similar biological activities [19]. Oleanolic acid can significantly reduce hepatocellular necrosis, steatosis, atrophy, ballooning, interstitial inflammatory response, mitochondrial swelling, endoplasmic reticulum vesicle lesions and reduced glycogen caused by carbon tetrachloride [20-21]. Ursolic acid can prevent ethanol-induced injury to isolated rat hepatocytes, release transaminases and activation factors, and block ethanol's ability to reduce hepatocyte viability [22]. The hepatoprotective effect of oleanolic acid and ursolic acid may be related to their regulation of lipid metabolism and enhanced antioxidant capacity on the one hand [21]; on the other hand, it may be related to their enhanced immune function. Ursolic acid can inhibit the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway in intestinal epithelial cells and macrophages, thereby alleviating experimental colitis in mice [23].

2.4 Rosmarinic acid

Rosmarinic acid is a phenolic acid with strong antioxidant properties. Its main function is to prevent oxidative damage by scavenging free radicals in the body, an effect that is related to the structure of the hydroxy group [1]. In addition, rosmarinic acid can alleviate the inflammatory response caused by oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL)-induced atherosclerosis [24] and inhibit the production of nicotine-induced C-reactive protein and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in vascular smooth muscle cells [25]. Rosmarinic acid also inhibits bacterial growth. The mechanism of action is as follows: on the one hand, it alters the permeability of the cell membrane, causing leakage of sugars and proteins and thus disrupting the metabolic processes in the bacterial cell; on the other hand, it inhibits the activity of DNA polymerase and disrupts the replication of bacterial DNA [26].

3 Effect of rosemary extract on animal growth performance

Rosemary extract added to feed can promote animal growth (Table 1). A study on pigs showed that adding 0.03% rosemary essential oil to the weaning piglet diet can improve the apparent digestibility of crude fat and neutral detergent fiber, thereby improving feed conversion efficiency, but has no significant effect on weight gain, feed intake and diarrhea rate [14]; Adding 0.05% rosemary acid to the feed can improve the morphological structure of the colon in weaned piglets after infection with the enterotoxin-producing Escherichia coli K88 (ETEC K88), regulate the composition of the colon flora, increase the content of short-chain fatty acids in bacterial metabolites in the colon chyme, and help maintain the barrier function of the colon, relieve the inflammatory response in the colon caused by ETEC K88 infection, alleviate diarrhea in weaned piglets and maintain intestinal health [27].

Studies on poultry have shown that adding 0.5% rosemary leaf powder to the feed can increase the body weight gain and feed intake of broilers and improve feed efficiency [28]; adding 0.01% to 0.04% rosemary extract to the feed of laying hens can significantly improve the color of the egg yolk [29]. Studies on aquatic animals have shown that the addition of 0.04%, 0.07%, 0.1% or 0.3% rosemary essential oil to the feed can improve the specific growth rate and weight gain of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), and the improvement effect is positively correlated with the amount of rosemary essential oil added [30]. The addition of 0.05% rosemary extract to the feed can improve the survival rate of rainbow trout, the protein and fat efficiency ratio, and improve the degree of fattening [31]; the addition of 0.5% rosemary extract to the feed can significantly increase the weight gain rate and protein efficiency ratio of the sharp-toothed catfish (Clarias gariepinus) [32]; A mixture of carnosic acid and carnosol (1:1) added to the feed had no significant effect on the growth performance of golden seabream (Sparus aurata), but significantly reduced liver fat degeneration and the activities of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) in the serum [33]. Adding 2% and 3% rosemary leaf powder to the feed of carp (Cyprinus carpio) can increase the weight gain rate and specific growth rate [34].

Studies on other animals have shown that the addition of rosemary extract (containing 5% rosmarinic acid, 5% polyphenols, 5% moisture, 10% ash, 1% caffeic acid) to the feed of milk goats can increase milk production by 5.84% (not statistically significant) [35]. Cardinali et al. [36] reported that adding 0.1% rosemary essential oil and 0.1% oregano essential oil complex to the rabbit feed can increase the average daily weight gain and the weight at day 80, but has no significant effect on the average daily feed intake and feed conversion rate. The improvement of animal growth performance is attributed to: 1) rosemary extract can improve nutrient digestion rate and enhancing the intestinal absorption and utilization of nutrients [30, 37]; 2) rosemary extract has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, lipid-metabolism-regulating and antibacterial effects, which can improve the health of the liver and intestines, enhance their metabolic capacity, and thus promote animal growth.

4 The effect of rosemary extract on animal immunity

The improvement of animal growth performance is closely related to the enhancement of immunity, which is closely related to lysozyme (LZM), immunoglobulins and inflammatory cytokines [40]. Studies have shown that adding rosemary essential oil to the feed can increase the activity of LZM in rainbow trout serum and the total immunoglobulin and white blood cell content, and reduce the activity of AST and ALT [30]; it can reduce the activity of AST and ALT and glucose content in sturgeon serum, and increase the total protein, globulin and lymphocyte content [39]. Rosmarinic acid added to the feed can significantly reduce the levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in the mucous membranes of piglets, increase the level of interleukin-10 (IL-10), down-regulate the mRNA expression levels of Toll-like receptors (TLR)-2 and TLR-4, and up-regulate the mRNA expression level of TLR-5 [27]; can increase the content of immunoglobulin A (IgA) and immunoglobulin M (IgM) in the serum of milk goats, but has no significant effect on the content of cytokines [35].

Adding rosemary leaf powder to animal feed can increase the levels of albumin and globulin in the serum of broilers and carp [28]; it can increase the LZM activity, complement alternative activity (ACH50), and white blood cell count (WBC) in the serum of carp [34]; and it can increase the levels of immunoglobulin, interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and IL-10 levels in broiler serum [38, 41]. The mechanism by which rosemary extract improves animal immunity may be related to its inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway. NF-κB is an important transcription factor that regulates the gene expression of cytokines and other factors related to inflammatory responses [42]. Studies have reported that rosmarinic acid can downregulate the mRNA expression level of NF-κB in the mucosa of piglets [27]; ursolic acid can inhibit the activation of NF-κB in intestinal epithelial cells and macrophages, thereby reducing the colitis response in mice [23]. In BV-2 glial cells, it was found that rosemary extract can reduce the protein expression levels of IL-1β, TNF-α and NF-κB, enhancing the anti-inflammatory effect [43].

5 Effect of rosemary extract on the antioxidant capacity of animals

Free radicals are waste products produced by organisms during the process of obtaining biological energy. When animals are fed high-protein, high-fat diets, or when they are fed at high rates or kept at high stocking densities, their energy metabolism is more vigorous, producing more free radicals. To resist oxidative damage, animals have developed an antioxidant system that mainly includes enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant systems. The enzymatic antioxidant system includes antioxidant enzymes such as SOD, CAT and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), which can scavenge oxygen free radicals [44].

Feeding a diet supplemented with rosemary essential oil can increase the SOD and GPx activities in the serum of weaned piglets, and has no significant effect on total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) and malondialdehyde (MDA) content [14]; it can increase the SOD activity in the serum of broiler chickens [45] and Jinghai yellow chickens [13] and reduce MDA content; can increase the CAT and SOD activities in rainbow trout serum [30]. Feeding a diet supplemented with rosmarinic acid can increase the GPx activity in the serum of dairy goats, but has no significant effect on the MDA content, T-AOC and SOD activity [35]. Feeding a diet supplemented with hesperidin and rosmarinic acid can reduce MDA levels in the breast muscle of broilers, increase total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD) activity, and increase the mRNA expression levels of quinone NADH dehydrogenase 1 (NQO1) and SOD [46].

Feeding a diet supplemented with rosemary leaf powder can increase the activity of glutathione S-transferase (GST) and T-SOD and the content of glutathione (GSH) in the thymus of broilers, and reduce the content of MDA [38]; it can increase the activity of SOD and GPx in the serum of rainbow trout, but has no significant effect on the activity of CAT [31]; can increase the activity of SOD and CAT in the serum of carp [34]. The mechanism by which rosemary extract improves the antioxidant capacity of animals is related to its molecular structure. The phenolic hydroxyl group has the ability to scavenge oxygen free radicals, and the conjugated double bond at the C-3 position has a synergistic effect. It is also related to the activation of the Nrf2 pathway, and Nrf2 is a key transcription factor that upregulates the expression of antioxidant enzyme genes [47].

Rosmarinic acid-containing additives added to broiler diets can upregulate Nrf2 mRNA expression in muscle [46]. In studies on human colon cancer cell lines (HCT116 and SW480), rosemary extract was found to increase the protein expression levels of Nrf2, glutathione peroxidase 1 (GPx 1), glutathione S-transferase P1 (GSTP1) and SOD [48]. Studies in mice have shown that the addition of rosemary extract to a high-fat diet can increase the mRNA and protein expression levels of CAT, SOD, GPx and Nrf2 in the liver, enhancing antioxidant capacity [49].

6 Effect of rosemary on meat quality

Meat quality affects consumer purchasing decisions. Parameters such as meat color, shear force, cooking loss and pH are indicators of meat quality [50]. In addition, consumers often associate meat color with freshness and meat quality, and meat color directly affects consumer purchasing decisions [51]. The lower the L* value of the muscle, the less white it is and the less water oozes from the surface, indicating that the meat quality is better; the higher the a* value and the lower the b* value of the muscle, the better the meat color [52]. Studies have reported that adding 0.015% rosemary essential oil to the feed of Beijing yellow chickens can increase the leg and breast muscle rates, increase the moisture and crude protein content and reduce the crude fat content in the leg and breast muscles, improve the meat color, reduce the shear force and pH, and improve the meat quality [13]. In broilers, feeding a diet supplemented with rosemary acid can improve the slaughter rate and breast muscle rate, reduce the L* and b* values of the breast muscle, reduce cooking loss and shear force, and improve breast muscle quality [46].

The increase in breast muscle rate and leg muscle rate may be related to the fact that flavonoids improve the body's deposition of protein and thus improve slaughter performance. In addition, rosemary extract also plays an active role in extending the shelf life. It has been reported that rosemary extract can significantly inhibit the growth rate of microorganisms during the refrigeration of Litopenaeus vannamei, slow down the increase in pH, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) and thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values, maintain good hardness and elasticity values, reduce the rate of protein oxidation, and maintain storage TVB-N) and thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values, maintains good hardness and elasticity values, reduces the rate of protein oxidation, maintains the stability of the protein tertiary structure during storage, and maintains the stability of the surface color, extending the refrigerated shelf life by 2–3 d [53]. Adding 0.04% rosemary extract to chilled pork meatballs can inhibit fat oxidation, improve the color and flavor of the meatballs, and lower the pH of the meatballs in the early stages of refrigeration. In addition, rosemary extract has a better effect on extending the shelf life than thyme extract and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) [54].

Soaking in a solution containing 1.7 g/L rosemary extract for 41 minutes can significantly reduce the levels of TBA and trimethylamine (TMA) in white crucian carp meat. In addition, the levels of fishy substances that contribute significantly to the fishy smell, such as aldehydes, heptaldehyde, nonanal and 1-octen-3-ol, were also significantly reduced, suggesting that rosemary extract can effectively inhibit the lipid oxidation of silver carp meat and improve the flavor of the fish, which is of positive significance for promoting the development of the silver carp processing industry [55]. Ma Chenyang et al. [56] also showed that rosmarinic acid is an active substance for deodorizing fish, and that the deodorizing ability is positively correlated with its concentration. The mechanism of rosemary extract in protecting meat quality and deodorizing may be: rosemary extract can effectively delay the oxidation rate of meat and maintain the relative stability of meat components [57]; it can competitively bind to the hydrophilic sites of myofibrillar proteins with fishy substances and enhance the interaction between proteins and proteins, thereby promoting the release of fishy substances [58].

7 Summary

In summary, rosemary extract contains rosemary essential oil, carnosic acid, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid and rosmarinic acid, which play an active role in antioxidant, immune regulation, liver protection and antibacterial activities. Adding rosemary extract to animal feed can promote the healthy growth of animals by improving their antioxidant capacity and immunity and improving meat quality. However, the current research on the mechanism of rosemary extract promoting the healthy growth of animals mainly focuses on enzyme activity levels, and there has been little research on the molecular mechanism, which requires further systematic and in-depth research. In addition, on this basis, further research is needed to determine whether the effects of different rosemary extract components in promoting the healthy growth of animals and their mechanisms of action are consistent or different, in order to provide guidance for the comprehensive application of rosemary extract in animal husbandry.

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