What Are Rosemary Extract Ingredients and Their Uses in Animal Feeding?

Abstract:Rosemary is a natural spice plant, rich in terpenoids, flavonoids and organic acids, with anti-infective, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, which can improve animal performance and product quality. In this paper, the main active substances, extraction process, physiological functions and related studies on rosemary in livestock and poultry production are reviewed, with a view to providing assistance for the further development and utilization of rosemary in animal production.

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.), family Labiatae, genus Diego, also known as the dew of the sea. Rosemary is a small aromatic evergreen shrub with medicinal and food properties, 1 ~ 2 m tall, with clustered linear leaves and small light blue or mauve flowers. The leaves and flowers secrete volatile oils that produce a special strong aroma (Sai, Chunmei and Liang, 2012). Rosemary originated from the Mediterranean coast and was widely cultivated in southern Europe. It was introduced into China during the Cao Wei period and is now cultivated mainly in the southern region and Shandong, with rapid development of rosemary cultivation in Henan in recent years.

Rosemary likes warm climate and long sunshine, no cold winter climate is more suitable for its growth, more drought-resistant. As a natural spice, rosemary is widely used in cosmetics and food cooking, and rosemary is rich in terpenes, polyphenols, flavonoids and organic acids, which have been proved to have a variety of biological activities, such as bacteriostatic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor activities, and have the potential to be developed as drugs (Wu, Meng, and Xu, Xiao-jun, 2016). The active ingredients of rosemary can also be developed into feed additives, which has attracted much attention in recent years. A comprehensive and in-depth understanding of the active components and physiological functions of rosemary is important for the development and utilization of rosemary resources. Therefore, this paper is intended to review the main active substances, extraction process, physiological functions of rosemary and their related studies in livestock and poultry production, in order to provide a reference for the development of rosemary active substances for animal production.

1 Active Ingredients of Rosemary Extract

The main active components of rosemary can be divided into two categories, one is volatile substances, mainly monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, which are the main components of the essential oil of rosemary, and the other is non-volatile components, mainly polyterpenes, flavonoids, and organic acids, which are often developed as natural antioxidants (Sheng-Nan Liu et al., 2019).

1.1 Terpenes    

The terpenoids in rosemary include monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes and triterpenes, which are the most abundant and complex components of rosemary.

1.1.1 Monoterpenes and Sesquiterpenes    

Monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes are the two main classes of constituents found in the essential oil of rosemary, including 1,8-eudesmanein, α-pinene, camphor, camphene, β-pinene, geranylgeranyl, and veratryl ketone (Tadtong et al., 2015). There are 16 subclasses of rosemary and many cultivated strains, and the chemical composition of essential oils from different strains of rosemary is highly variable. Based on the differences in the relative amounts of the major components, the essential oils of rosemary can be chemotyped, and there are currently more than 13 different chemotypes of rosemary essential oils (Satyal et al., 2017). The composition of rosemary essential oil is also affected by the region and time of sample collection, extraction method and location, and preservation method. The extraction rate of rosemary essential oil from Beijing was 4.04%, which was higher than that of Guizhou (2.71%). The extraction rate of essential oil from rosemary harvested in summer was higher than that in winter, with 3.13% and 2.35%, respectively. The whole plant of rosemary can be used for essential oil extraction, with α-pinene as the main essential oil component in the leaves and lobeline in the stems (Lemos et al., 2015; Pan Yan et al., 2013).

1.1.2 Diterpenes    

The diterpenoids contained in rosemary are thermally stable and do not decompose during distillation, and have a high thermal stability, mainly diterpene phenols and diterpene quinones. Diterpene phenols are the main antioxidant constituents in rosemary, mainly sage phenol, sage acid and rosmarinol, with contents of 4.21%, 0.39% and 0.12%, respectively, in the dried leaves of rosemary (Zheng and Wang, 2001; Okamura et al., 1994). The diterpene quinones in rosemary are mainly rosmariquione, royleanone, etc. (He Liwei et al., 2020).

1.1.3 Triterpenoids    

The triterpenoids in rosemary are mainly triterpenoids , ursolic acid, betulinol, oleanolic acid, and betulinic acid (Hanson, 2016).

1.2 Flavonoids    

There are more than 40 types of flavonoids in the herb, with a content of about 0.16%, which are also the main antioxidant substances in rosemary. Flavonoids include thujaplicins, naringin, quercetin, lignans, etc. (Ren Liping et al., 2017).

1.3 Organic Acids    

The organic acids in rosemary accounted for about 5.55% of the extract, mainly rosemarinic acid, caffeic acid and p-coumaric acid (Peng et al., 2005). Among them, rosmarinic acid is considered to be an important active substance in rosemary, containing polyphenolic hydroxyl groups, which have been shown to have antioxidant, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects (Wang Yan, 2013). Rosmarinic acid can not only be extracted from plants, but also synthesized biologically, enzymatically and chemically (Geng, Lijun and Zhao, 2018).

1.4 Other Ingredients  

 Rosemary also contains sugars, glycosides, alkyl acids, amino acids and Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn and other components.

2Extraction of Ingredients Components of Rosemary

2.1 Extraction Method of Rosemary Essential Oil  

The essential oil of rosemary mainly contains strong volatile components such as monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, which can be extracted by organic solvent extraction, distillation, supercritical fluid extraction and other methods. The essential oil extracted by organic solvent extraction method has high yield and good stability, but it is easy to residual organic solvent, difficult to remove impurities, high cost, long time, and less industrialized production application. Steam distillation extraction method using essential oils are difficult to dissolve in water, and do not react with the characteristics of water, so that the essential oil components and water vapor evaporated at the same time. Steam distillation extraction of essential oils is simple and practical, low investment, the actual production of more, but the distillation time is longer, high temperature so that the essential oil components decomposition. Supercritical fluid extraction method obtains high yields of essential oils, good quality, and can well protect the active and thermally unstable components, but the investment is large, the maintenance cost of equipment is high, and the process requirements are high (Zhao Xueli et al., 2020). Enzymatic and ultrasonic methods are commonly used to assist the extraction of rosemary essential oil to improve the extraction efficiency (Zhang Lin et al., 2016).

2.2 Extraction of Antioxidants from Rosemary   

Another important use of rosemary is the extraction of antioxidants from the leaves of rosemary, which mainly include salvinorin, salicylic acid, rosmarinol and rosmarinic acid, etc. Currently, solvent extraction and supercritical fluid extraction are the main methods for extracting antioxidants from rosemary. Currently, the main methods for extracting antioxidant components from rosemary are solvent extraction and supercritical fluid extraction. Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) has no solvent residue and high product quality, and is the method of choice for pharmaceutical and food companies (Rosemary Cole et al., 2006).

3 Biological Uses of the Active Ingredients of Rosemary Extract

3.1 Anti-infective 

 Many plants produce secondary metabolites to inhibit bacteria, which may be an adaptive response to pathogen invasion. Rosemary is nowadays widely used as a food preservative, which takes advantage of its strong antimicrobial activity (Wang et al., 2012). The antimicrobial activity of rosemary essential oil is higher than that of the single compounds 1,8-eudesmus and α-pinene, and it is possible that there is a synergistic effect between the antimicrobial compounds in the essential oil. In addition to antimicrobial properties, rosemary essential oil has insecticidal, antiparasitic and antifungal activities (Swamy et al., 2016; Luqman et al., 2007). In vitro antimicrobial assays showed good bacteriostatic activity against Gram-positive bacteria such as Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus subtilis, Gram-negative bacteria such as Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli, as well as two strains of fungi, Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger. Rosemarinic acid can increase the permeability of bacterial cell membranes, causing intracellular nutrient efflux and affecting cellular metabolism, thus exerting bacteriostatic effects (Jiang et al., 2011).

3.2 Anti-inflammatory

Inflammation is an adaptive response of the body to a foreign body, but excessive chronic inflammation can be detrimental. Rosemary is often used to treat respiratory inflammation such as bronchial asthma (Zanella et al., 2012). Rosemarinus officinalis (ROS) and Salvia divinorum (RD) phenols reduce nitric oxide (NO) and α-tumor necrosis factor (α-TNF) production by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated macrophages through inhibition of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). In addition, it inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB p65 (NF-κB) by blocking the phosphorylation and degradation of IκBα in the mouse RAW264.7 macrophage cell line. The anti-inflammatory effects of simple silymarinic acid and silybinol were weaker than those of rosemary extracts, and it is possible that the phenolic acid components of rosemary may have a synergistic effect on anti-inflammation (Kuo et al., 2011).

3.3 Antioxidant

Compared with synthetic antioxidants, plant-derived antioxidants have the advantages of being non-toxic and free of side effects, and can be used in the storage of meat, fats and oils, as well as in the prevention and treatment of oxidative damage-related diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegeneration. In vitro antioxidant tests have shown that sage acid, sage phenol, rosemarinic acid, rosemarinol, oleanolic acid and ursolic acid have scavenging activity against 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals (Beretta et al., 2011). Sageol, rosmarinol and epi-rosmarinol also prevent lipid peroxidation by scavenging lipid free radicals (Zeng et al., 2001). Addition of sage and rosemary essential oils to mouse diets reduced oxidative stress, decreased lipid peroxidation levels in the heart and brain, and increased tissue glutathione peroxidase, catalase, and superoxide dismutase activities (Rakovi et al., 2014). Shen Tingting et al. (2014) found that rosemary extract could enhance the expression of antioxidant enzymes by regulating the key antioxidant component nuclear factor-related factor-2 (Nrf-2).

3.4 Other    

Some studies have shown that Dieffenbachia also has anticancer, hepatoprotective, and neuroendocrine modulating activities (Kompelly et al., 2019).

4 Application of Rosemary Extracts in Animal Feeding

4.1 Poultry    

Addition of 0.5% rosemary leaf meal to the diet improved the daily weight gain and feed-to-meat ratio of Abbott's broilers, increased plasma levels of total protein, albumin, and globulin, while decreasing glucose, total lipids, and cholesterol, and increased the lymphoid organ index and anti-sheep erythrocyte antibody levels. However, addition of more than 0.5% decreased growth performance and digestibility of most nutrients (Ghazalah and Ali, 2008). Yesilbag et al. (2011) found that the addition of rosemary oil (100, 150 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg) and rosemary leaf powder (equivalent to the above mentioned essential oils) to diets tended to improve the performance of Ross-308 broilers by decreasing malondialdehyde and E. coli levels in the meat, lowering the pH of the meat and improving the flavor. Mathlouthi et al. (2011) demonstrated that the addition of 100 mg/kg of essential oil of Dieppe to the diet significantly improved the daily weight gain and feed conversion efficiency of Abbott's broilers. Addition of 150 and 200 mg/kg of rosemary essential oil to the diet of Jinghai yellow chickens improved their performance and meat quality (Li Aihua, 2014), antioxidant capacity (Liu Dalin et al., 2014) and thymus index (Liu Yannan et al., 2016). Tang et al. (2018) showed that purified rosemary extract (>95% rhamnosus acid) ameliorated myocardial injury, induced high expression of heat shock proteins CRYAB and HSP70, and reduced levels of creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, and cardiac myocardial creatine kinase in heat-stressed broilers.Rostami et al. (2018) found that the addition of 0.5% and 1% rosemary extracts to diets was associated with lower vitamin B and higher vitamin C levels. Rostami et al. (2018) found that the addition of 0.5% and 1% rosemary extract to the diet interacted with vitamin E to modulate humoral immunity in broilers.

Mahgoub et al. (2019) found that the addition of 1~2 mL/kg of rosemary cold-pressed essential oil (containing about 3.5 g/kg polyphenols) to the diet improved performance, carcass quality and antioxidant capacity, and reduced the number of harmful ileal microorganisms in quails. Addition of rosemary essential oil (150, 250 mg/kg) to the diet reduced lipid peroxidation in the testes of heat-stressed quails, alleviated tissue damage, increased spermatogonial cell counts, and reduced apoptosis (Türk et al., 2016).

Yang Jiansheng et al. (2016) showed that the addition of 0.3% rosemary herb powder to the diet of laying hens increased egg production rate and average daily total egg weight, improved egg yolk color, and increased serum albumin level. Adding 0.6% rosemary herb powder to the diet of laying hens significantly improved the antioxidant capacity and egg quality of eggs during the high temperature season (An Tingting et al., 2017) and reduced the expression of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) gene in the ovary, uterus, heart, lungs, and kidneys, and increased the expression of lysozyme gene in the ovary, isthmus, heart, liver, spleen, lungs, small intestine, and adeno-gastric region, and alleviated the damage caused by heat stress on the performance of laying hens (Wang Xiaohui et al., 2017). damage of heat stress on the production performance of laying hens (Wang, Xiaohui et al., 2019).

4.2 Pigs    

The addition of rosemary essential oil (250 mg/kg) to the diet increased the average daily gain of weaned piglets, reduced the feed-to-weight ratio, and increased the apparent digestibility of crude protein, calcium, and phosphorus (Li, Fangfang et al., 2019). Ma Hong et al. (2021) found that the addition of encapsulated rosemary essential oil (300 mg/kg) to diets increased the feed conversion efficiency of weaned piglets, the apparent digestibility of crude fat and neutral detergent fiber, and the activity of serum glutathione peroxidase.Liotta et al. (2015) found that the addition of rosemary extract (1 g/kg) to swine diets increased unsaturated fatty acid content and improved the unsaturated fatty acid content of pig meat. Malo et al. (2011) showed that rosemary extract protected against the effects of freezing and thawing on porcine spermatozoa quality, increased sperm viability, and reduced lipid peroxidation levels.

4.3 Ruminants    

Addition of rosemary diterpenes (silymarinic acid and silybinol, 600 mg/kg) to the diet of meat goats resulted in deposition into the meat, reducing meat oxidization and microbial counts, etc. (2015). Addition of distilled rosemary leaves to the diet of ewes did not negatively affect milk yield and quality and increased the content of flavonoids (e.g. hesperidin, naringenin, coriander), gallic acid and phenolic diterpenes (rhamnosus acid and rhamnol) in sheep's milk, and polyphenolics such as rhamnolic acid, rhamnosus acid and rhamnol could be transferred to the plasma of young lambs (Jordán et al., 2010). Chiofalo et al. (2010) added rosemary extract (600, 1200 mg/head-d) to the diet of ewes and found that milk yield and milk levels of protein, casein, fat and lactose were higher in the high-dose group than in the low-dose group and the control group; the addition of rosemary extract decreased the curdling time and increased the hardness of curd.Boutoial et al. (2013) found that the addition of distilled peroxide to the diet of dairy goats resulted in the reduction of the curdling time and the increase of curd hardness. Boutoial et al. (2013) found that the addition of distilled rosemary (20%) to the diet of dairy goats reduced the curdling time, dry matter and lactose content of pasteurized milk; 10% addition decreased the percentage of C14 fatty acids and increased the levels of C18:2 and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), while 20% reduction in the levels of C10 and C14 increased the percentages of C17, C18:2 and PUFA; 20% addition significantly affected the protein content of cheese. The addition of rosemary to the diet significantly affected cheese protein content, pH and water activity. Addition of rosemary extract (2.14 g/kg) to the diet increased serum glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), immunoglobulin A (IgA) and immunoglobulin M (IgM) levels in dairy goats (Ziyang Zhang et al., 2021).

De Oliveira Monteschio (2017) found that the addition of a dietary supplement of essential oils of dieppe (4 g/head-d) reduced lipid oxidation of beef, improved meat quality and increased rack life. In a study by O'Grady et al. (2006), the addition of a dietary supplement of 1000 mg/head-d of a herbicide extract to beef cattle diets was found to improve the lipid stability and meat color of the meat.

5 Summary

Rosemary is rich in terpenoids, flavonoids and organic acids with antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, which can improve the performance of livestock and poultry, intestinal health, antioxidant status and the quality of livestock products. The application effect of rosemary in animal production is affected by factors such as the source of samples, the production process and the amount of additives, etc. The formulation of appropriate product standards is particularly important for the evaluation and application of rosemary. Currently, the research on rosemary in livestock production is not systematic enough, e.g. the molecular mechanisms for intestinal health and antioxidant activity are still not clear.

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