Study on Ginger Antibacterial

Ginger is the fresh rhizome of the ginger plant Zingiber officinale Roscoe, and has a long history of medicinal use. It is pungent and warm in nature, and has the effects of dispelling exopathogens and relieving colds, warming the middle Jiao to stop vomiting, inducing diuresis and detoxifying, resolving phlegm and relieving coughs. At present, there have been major advances in the extraction of ginger's active ingredients, chemical composition analysis, pharmacological research and clinical applications.

1 Chemical composition of ginger

The main modern processing methods for ginger include steam distillation, pressing, solvent extraction, and supercritical carbon dioxide extraction. Its chemical composition can be divided into three categories: ① volatile oil, the main component of which is monoterpenes, such as monoterpenes such as α-pinene, β-sesquiterpenes such as α-zingerone and β-elemene, etc. (2) Zingerone, which can be divided into different types such as ginger phenols, gingerene phenols, ginger ketones, ginger diketones and ginger diols.

(3) Diphenylheptane, which can be divided into linear diphenylheptanes and cyclic diphenylheptanes. These compounds have an antioxidant effect [1].

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2 Pharmacological effects of ginger

2.1 Antioxidant effect

Fuhrman and Ahmed et al. [2-3] found that ginger can regulate lipid peroxidation in rats and reduce peroxides in the body. Song Xueying et al. [4] compared the activity of catalase (CAT) in the heart and liver and the mass molar concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA) in the brain and liver of anoxic mice and non-anoxic mice to explore the protective effect of ginger ethanol extract (ZGB) on acutely anoxic mice. The experiment showed that ginger can enhance the CAT activity in heart and liver tissue, remove excess H2O2 in the tissue, and protect tissue cells from damage.

Wang Qiao et al. [5] showed that ginger ethanol extract (EZE) has a strong inhibitory and scavenging effect on free radicals, which can significantly prolong the hypoxia tolerance time of mice with acute hypoxia, suggesting that EZE may become a natural anti-hypoxia drug with antioxidant effects. Ginger extract mixtures have different degrees of inhibitory effects on the oxidation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in vitro [6]. The three extracts have different degrees of inhibitory effects on the in vitro oxidation of LPL induced by the Cu2+ oxidation system and the free radical initiator 2,2-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride oxidation system. Among them, the 75% ethanol extract has a more significant antioxidant effect, and found that the more important monomeric substances all contain the 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl functional group, such as 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, 6-gingerene, etc., which are actually a mixture of a group of polyphenolic substances.

Liu Ning et al. [7] fed Wistar male rats a high-fat diet with 5% ginger for 90 days, and then measured glutathione peroxidase and lipid peroxides in heart blood samples and compared the results with those of the control group fed only a high-fat diet. The results showed that ginger can increase glutathione peroxidase and reduce lipid peroxides, indicating that it has a varying degree of inhibitory and/or scavenging effects on free radicals in the body. The substances responsible for its antioxidant activity are mainly gingerols, shogaols and certain related phenol ketone derivatives. He Wenshan [8] isolated a cyclic diphenylheptane compound from the methanol extract of ginger, which was prepared with sterile redistilled water to a concentration of 20g/L. experiments confirmed that it can inhibit the hemolysis of red blood cells (RBCs) caused by H2O2, can significantly antagonize the lipid peroxidation of liver homogenate stimulated by vitamin C/Fe2+, and can inhibit the lipid peroxidation level of mouse liver tissue, indicating that it has the effect of inhibiting free radical damage. It was shown that this compound in ginger has a significant inhibitory effect on the production of oxygen free radicals in isolated RBCs, DNA or liver homogenates.

He Liya et al. [9] used Pussinell's four-vessel ligation method and Lamson's hemorrhagic shock method to create a model of acute complete cerebral ischemia-reperfusion in rabbits. 0.79 g/kg ginger extract (the main component is gingerol) was used for reperfusion (the ginger ethanol extract was dissolved in NaOH and adding water to adjust the pH to 7–8), can effectively increase the activity of catalase, reduce lipid peroxidation in ischemic brain tissue, reduce metabolic acidosis in brain tissue, and to a certain extent, protect the integrity of cell membranes, thereby protecting the brain from ischemia-reperfusion injury. Yan Huiying et al. [10] reported that ginger juice obtained by peeling ginger and pressing it in a juicer, centrifuging at 4000 r/min for 15 min, and the supernatant can enhance the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in mouse serum and reduce the amount of malondialdehyde, indicating that it has the effect of inhibiting the production of oxygen free radicals.

In addition, the inhibition rate of oxygen free radicals increases with the increase of temperature below 35 °C, from 35 to 55 ℃ with the increase of temperature, the inhibition of oxygen free radicals decreased, and after 55 ℃, it basically remained unchanged. Liu Jinling et al. [11] reported that ginger extract given to mice by gavage has a significant effect on reversing the decrease in SOD enzyme activity in the liver of mice caused by carbon tetrachloride, and can strongly inhibit the lipid peroxidation caused by carbon tetrachloride, reducing the content of MDA in the liver, suggesting that ginger has an antioxidant effect.

2.2 Cholesterol-lowering effect

Bhandari et al. [12] fed rabbits a high-fat diet for 10 weeks to establish a high-fat model. Total cholesterol, triglycerides (TG), serum lipoproteins and phospholipids in the serum increased significantly. However, when ginger ethanol extract (200 mg/kg) was given to rabbits fed a high-fat diet for 10 weeks, all of the above indicators were significantly reduced, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) increased, confirming that ginger can lower cholesterol and reduce the degree of atherosclerosis in rabbits. Ginger ethanol extract is ginger juice obtained from a juicer, extracted with 95% ethanol, concentrated at 45-60°C and 22-26 mm Hg pressure. 30 g of active substances can be extracted from 1 kg of ginger.

Fuhrman et al. [13] reported that 250 μg of ginger juice (1 g contains 40 mg of total gingerol, 90 mg of phenolic substances, and 14 μL of ginger essential oil), was added to 1 liter of 1.1% ethanol, and the mice with knocked out apo E genes drank it for 10 weeks. This reduced total cholesterol, TG, and LDL in the blood serum and alleviated atherosclerosis in the aorta. Wu Caixia et al. [14] used a rat hyperlipidemia model with lovastatin as a positive control to measure the levels of serum TC, TG, and HDL-C in the rats. The results showed that it can significantly reduce serum TG and LDL-C, increase HDL-C levels, and enhance SOD activity in the arterial wall by antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and promoting nitric oxide (NO) production.

2.3 Anti-inflammatory effect

Penna et al. [15] reported that ginger ethanol extract administered intraperitoneally can inhibit the swelling of the rat plantar and skin edema caused by carrageenan and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), but has no effect on the swelling caused by substance P or bradykinin, suggesting that its anti-inflammatory mechanism is related to blocking 5-HT receptors.

2.4 Antimicrobial effect

Fu Aihua et al. [16] reported that ginger ethanol extract diluted to a concentration of 0.0625% to 0.2500% with liquid Sabouraud agar base can have a very significant inhibitory and bactericidal effect on the common dermatophytes in the culture medium: Epidermophyton floccosum, Microsporum canis, Trichophyton tonsurans, and Trichophyton verrucosum. Wang Huifang et al. [17] reported that ginger was homogenized with double-distilled water, the supernatant was taken, and the concentration equivalent to 0.25 g of ginger per milliliter was prepared. The mice were given 16 mL/kg, 32 mL/kg, and 64 mL/kg, respectively, for 20 days, and fasting venous blood was taken to measure the content of serum lysozyme. It was found that the degree of change in lysozyme activity caused by different doses was different. When a low dose was given, lysozyme activity increased significantly, and when a medium-high dose was given, lysozyme activity increased extremely significantly, suggesting that ginger can activate the secretory function of monocytes, causing lysozyme to be released in large quantities to hydrolyze the mucopolysaccharides in the bacterial cell wall, causing it to die or lyse, and thus exerting an antibacterial effect.

2.5 Antitumor effect

Liu Hui [18] reported that ginger homogenate was extracted by a 70% to 95% ethanol gradient, the ethanol was recovered, and the volume was made up to 2 g of raw medicine per milliliter. The extract was given to tumor-bearing mice (HepA tumor-bearing mice) by gavage, 10 g/kg, for 12 consecutive days. The results showed that the gingerol extract significantly increased the organ index and macrophage phagocytosis rate of tumor-bearing mice, significantly increased the content of IgM and enhanced the transformation function of T lymphocytes. Explanation: The gingerol extract can significantly improve the nonspecific and specific immune function of animals caused by tumor, and has the effect of preventing and treating tumors.

2.6 Anti-motion sickness effect

Jiang Zhenglin et al. [19] reported that ginger (5 g) was peeled, ground into a pulp with water, and diluted with 100 mL of distilled water to make a suspension. The suspension was injected intraperitoneally and gavaged into a rat model of exercise-induced sickness, which was stimulated by rotation. The results showed that the anti-motion sickness effect of intraperitoneal injection was stronger than that of gavage administration, and there was no significant difference compared with the anticholinergic drug scopolamine. This suggests that in addition to its direct effect on the gastrointestinal tract, it may also work through other mechanisms.

2.7 Hypoglycemic effect

Akhani et al. [20] reported that in rats with normal blood glucose, intraperitoneal injection of 5-HT (1 mg/kg) can increase blood glucose and decrease serum insulin levels. This effect will be blocked by ginger juice. In a rat model of type 1 diabetes induced by streptozotocin, fasting blood glucose was significantly elevated and serum insulin levels were significantly decreased. After ginger juice (4 mL/kg) was administered by gavage once a day for 6 weeks, fasting blood glucose was significantly decreased, serum insulin levels were significantly increased, and serum cholesterol, TG and blood pressure were all reduced, suggesting that ginger juice may have an anti-diabetic effect by blocking 5-HT receptors.

2.8 Other effects

Ginger also has an antiemetic effect and is used for morning sickness during pregnancy [21-22] and vomiting caused by chemotherapy for malignant tumors [23]. It can induce apoptosis of human T lymphocytes [24], inhibit the activity of cyclooxygenase 1 (COX1), and prevent platelet aggregation [25].

References

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